Climate
change is a change in the pattern of the weather and related changes in oceans,
land surface and ice sheets, occurring over time scales of decade or longer.
Climate change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system
that persists for several decades or longer, usually at least 30 years. These
statistical properties include average, variability and extremes. Climate
change may be due to natural processes such as changes in sun’s radiation,
volcanoes or internal variability in the climate system or due to human
influences such as change in the composition of the atmosphere or land use.
Energy
sector is a category of stocks that related to producing or supplying energy.
These sectors includes companies involved in the exploration and development of
oil or gas drilling and refining, or integrated power utility companies including renewable energy and
coal. Energy sectors is a large and all
encompassing term that describe a complex and inter related network of companies
directly and indirectly involved in the production and distribution of energy
needed to power the economy and facilitate
the means of production. Energy sector include all things that produce
energy such as hydroelectric power, wind power, solar power, petroleum and
other which produce and distribute energy through the various ways like water,
sun light, fuel and biogas. Therefore when climate change take place it leads
many impacts may be positive or negative.
The
following are the impacts of climate change on energy sector especially in
Caribbean and other countries in Africa;-
Climate
change impact on hydroelectric power, according to data from OLADE in Latin
America and Caribbean the regional potential for hydroelectricity was of
582,033MW in 2005 but in 2006 the Caribbean it collapse in the production of
electricity through the water due to change of climate especially the collapse
or decline of height of dam so through the lack of enough water variability. Also in Africa there some
countries like Tanzania involve in the production of energy especially
electricity by using water such as Mtela, Nyumba ya mungu and other dams which
used for the production of electricity by using water, so some time the amount
of production and distribution of electricity is very high because the presence
of enough water but also sometime the amount of production and distribution of
that energy is very low because the change of climate change in that area, for
example during the rainfall season the production of electricity is very
high but during the summer the
production and distribution of electricity is very low because the climate
change.
Climate
change on wind energy, in Latin America and the Caribbean wind energy currently
account for less than0.4% of renewable energy. In 2006 Caribbean region
experienced an encouraging development with the deployment of new wind turbine
installation summing up to 296 MW of installed capacity. During the 2007-2010
the production of energy through wind in Caribbean is very high because it is
developed in production and distribution of energy through the presence of
wind, also in Tanzania there some area where produce energy by using wind like
Singida there that machines which produce and distribute energy through wind,
so sometime cannot produce enough energy because there is not wind blowing but sometime can produce and
distribute enough energy due to presence of enough wind because of climate change.
Impact
on climate change on solar energy, the sun is major external sources of energy
and internally there exist two primary sources of energy. The use of solar
energy in Caribbean is widely known and disseminated, but only on a local scale
or for domestic uses; so many African countries like Tanzania can use the
energy from the sun, solar energy can affected during the rainfall so in this
time the production and distribution of energy through the sun is very low
because there is no enough penetration of sunlight to the solar panel, so
during the summer the production and distribution of energy through the solar
is very high because there is enough amount of penetration of the sun rays, so the
production and distribution of solar energy can be affected by the presence of
the rainfall so when climate change may be during the rainfall there is low
production of energy through the solar energy
due to climate change.
Climate
change impact on bio-fuels, in Latin America and the Caribbean biofuels re
among the most promising type of biomass energy system in place given their
ability to replace oil imports by using indigenous resources. Several Caribbean
nation possess relatively large agricultural lands for the cultivation of bio-energy
dedicated crops for example temperature are linked with the real
evapotraspiration of sugarcane plants in semi arid condition therefore an increase in temperature and
decrease in rainfall will cause increased evapotraspiration, resulting in lower production of sugarcane and thus lower
bio-fuel product.
Climate
change impact on the geothermal energy production, shifting air temperature can
affect geothermal energy in the same manner they affect the efficiency of
fossil-fuel turbines. Both energy generation processes are based on the use of
steam cycle, where the difference between ambient and combustion temperature
have an impact on the overall efficiency of the boiler. Hydrologic change
driven by the climate undoubtedly impact geothermal energy production. In most
cases either groundwater or surface water is extracted for its use in a variety
of geothermal power general activities.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVESTOCK
Livestock keeping
refer to the rearing of animal for food and other for human uses. The word
livestock’’ applies primarily to cattle or dairy cows, chickens, goats, pigs,
horses and sheep today even animal like donkeys, mules, rabbits and insects
such as bees are being raised as part of livestock keeping. There is two types
of livestock keeping may be distinguished namely tradition pastoral and
commercial. There are some societies which engage much in livestock keeping
like Maasai, karamajongi, sukuma, and other society. Also there are some countries
which are engage in livestock keeping such as Argentina, Denmark, Tanzania,
Kenya and South Africa. The following are the impact of livestock keeping,
starting negative impact.
Death of animals.
Long term effects of climatic condition associated by increase of temperature
on the earth surface leads to desertification and drought which mostly affect
the growing of pasture to feed cattle hence due to the change of climate change
it cause the death of cattle because of the lack of good soil for pastures.
According to FAO (2007) .example In South African in 2009 cows death due to
drought also in other countries in Africa animal would be reduced up to 50% due
to climate change.
Wide spread of disease and pests.
For example of pests are like ticks and tsetse fly while disease are like
anthrax, east coast and rift valley fever due to the variation in temperature
and rainfall are the most significant climatic variables affecting livestock
disease outbreaks warmer and wetter weather will increase the risk and occurrence
of animals disease through the climate change many animal will affected with
different disease. According to Thompson (2013) described that country like Swaziland
animals were attack with pests and disease due to climate change.
Decrease of animal production.
According to Naqvi and sejian (2011) due to the fact that the livestock
production is sensitive to climate change at the same time itself contributor
to phenomena, climate change has potential to be an increasingly formidable to
the development of livestock sector. Due to change of climate change can lead
the animal production like milk and meat to decrease because of lack of water
and pastures for feeding animals. example in Mpolonjeni in Swaziland use
natural pastures to feed animal with the only few having other means buying hay
for their animals due to decrease of production.
Low reproduction of animal. Also
this is major impact of climate change in live stock keeping because due to the
climate change the rate of production will decrease due to the heart stress.
Reproductive process are affected by heart stress conception rate of dairy cows
may drops 20% - 27% in summer and low production will caused by low
fertilization, foliculogenesis because
the animal will not get enough pastures for production because of climate
change. Naqvi et al (2012) example in Kenya the reproduction of animals are low
due to lack of pastures.
Heart stress. As seasonal temperature rise with the
changing climate livestock will be more vulnerable to heart stress during the
warmest months animal tend to eat less when under heart stress resulting in
less weight gain and decreased performance and reproduction. Heart stress
models have predicted that by 2040 in the central US swine may take 1.5 to 3.7
days longer to reach slaughter weight. In cattle it could take 2.8 to 4.8 longer
and milk production could be reduced due to climate change (UNDP, 2007)
Also the following are the positive
impact of climate change in livestock keeping.
Increase of animal production. This
is due to increase of rainfall which mostly area support for growth of pastures
for feeding animal because when climate change in positive way the rainfall
will increase and animal get enough water and pastures. According to FANRPAN in
2009. Example in the area like Turkana and Wajir these areas due to climate
change where by climate condition is not constant overtime
Decrease of death to animal.
Due to increase rainfall which is
supportive to good soil which are most favored the growth of pastures for
feeding animal because when rainfall occur
even disease and pests for animal will decrease because of availability of
rainfall and enough pasture and water for animal disease like pests and rift
valley will occur due to climate change. (Thornton,2010; Thornton and Herrero,
2008)
Increase of pasture and water for
animal. Also when the climate change in positive when the
enough rainfall occur the animal will get enough water and pastures through
that the production and reproduction will increase due to availability of
pastures and water , FAO ( 2007) For example in Kenya the pastoralist they move
northern to central Kenya where there in enough water and pastures for their
animal in order to increase the production and reproduction.
Therefore
the climate change have impact to the livestock keeping through this its better
of combat the climate change in order to help the livestock because the
livestock keeping have the important to the people and the government at large
effort in needed in livestock keeping like development of early warning,
research to understand interaction among multiple stressors, also government
can support the issue of livestock keeping .
ADAPTATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE BY FARMERS
Farmer adaptation defines as adjustments in natural or human
systems in response to actual or expected effects which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities. It also refers to actions that people,
countries and societies take to adjust to climate change that has occurred.
However, adaptations have three objectives namely reducing exposure to the risk
of damage, to develop capacity to cope with avoidable damages, and to take
advantageous of new opportunities. Recently climate change has brought several
impacts on agriculture leading to the decline of agricultural production
particularly due to rise of temperature, variation in rain season, long terms
drought, floods and increase in heat waves. This has become a great challenge
to most of the farmers especially in most of African countries like Tanzania.
Hence in this work there are several adaptive strategies developed by farmers’
in order to cope with problems associated with climate change and with it many
case studies and references drawn from different parts of Africa. (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007)
Planting of drought resistant varieties of crops;
this is specifically carried out in drought prone areas which help in reducing
vulnerability to climate changes. Example of crops is like wheat which requires
significantly less irrigation water compared to drying season rice. The use of
drought resistant crop varieties have been tried by smallholder farmers as
adaptation methods to climate change in Nigeria, Senegal, Burkina Faso and
Ghana (Ngigi, 2009).
Crops diversification;
Crop diversity is a high priority adaptation measure in both irrigated and non
irrigated areas. Examples in Southern Africa, land use are manipulated leading
to land use conversion, such as the shift from livestock farming to game
farming. In Kordofan and Drafur states of western Sudan food crops have
replaced cash crops and more resilient varieties of crops have been introduced
(DFID, 2004). In Tanzania farmers diversify crops types as the way of spreading
risks on the farm (Orindi and Eriksen 2005). Adger et al (2003). Crops
diversification can serve as insurance against rainfall variability.
Change in cropping pattern and calendar of planting;
currently most of the farmers have radically transformed from the old habits
and experiences of planting their crops at one time rather they do it in both
seasons which includes as soon as before, during and after the commence of
rainfall and this aims at ensuring that every rain drop is utilized to the
maximum volume at any season of rain. According to Urama and Ozor (2011)
farmers in central Africa (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Central African
Republic) noted that the trend of uncertainties in extreme weather events has
generally increased within five past years which includes thunderstorms, heavy
winds, heat waves, floods and long term drought that force the farmers wisely
change the calendar of planting and cropping pattern. In Tanzania, to avoid
crop production risk due to rainfall variability and drought, staggered
planting is very common to most farmers whereby crops are planted before rain
onset (dry land) on uncultivated land. And others were planted immediately
after rain or few days after rain. These were done purposely to distribute risk
by ensuring that any rain was utilized to the maximum by the crop planted in
the dry field.
Mixed cropping; this is the one
among the useful coping strategies in of the farmers in Africa where by two or
more crops varieties have been cultivated on the same land with different
climate adaptive features. In Tanzania cereals (maize and sorghum), legumes
(beans) and nuts (groundnuts) are grown together. The advantage of mixing crops
with varying attributes are in terms of maturity period example (maize and
beans) drought tolerance, (maize and sorghum) input requirements, (cereals and
legumes) end users of the product, example ( maize as a food crop and sunflower
as a cash crop) .A research conducted by Mendelson et al (2000) on analyzing
adaptation made in Africa revealed that in all countries apart from Cameroon
and South Africa, the planting of different varieties of the same crop is
considered to be one of the most important adaptations. Different planting
dates are also considered an important adaptation in Egypt, Kenya and Senegal.
Improved irrigation efficiency,
is the best adaptive mechanism particularly in drought prone areas where there is
sufficient fresh water and this can be done specifically during dry season
where the demand for water increases due to high temperature caused by evapo
transpiration. As water become a limiting factor, improved irrigation efficiency
will become an important adaptation tool, especially in dry season (Selvaraju
et al, 2006). In Egypt, Kenya and South Africa significant number of farmers
have adapted by increased use of irrigation. In Gambia, South Africa and Sudan
farmers adapt it as irrigation water transfer, water harvesting and storage to
combat the effects of rainfall variability. (Nkomo et al, 2005 and Osman et al,
2005) as temperature increases farmers irrigate more frequently and when
precipitation increases they tend to irrigate less often and resort to natural
rainfall more often. Farmer in desert reduces irrigation when temperature
increases. Similarly, when precipitation increases, farms close to the desert
increase irrigation.
Adopting soil conservation measures that conserve soil
moinsture; This technique is mostly used in some
African countries like Burkina Faso, Kenya, Senegal and Niger (Nyong et al,
2007). A study carried out by Lema and Majule (2009), in Manyoni District of
Tanzania revealed that farmers at Kamenyanga and Kintinku ensure proper timing
of farming activities like burying of crops residues to replenish soil
fertility, burning crops residues to enhance quick release of nutrients and
allowing livestock to graze on farm land after harvesting crops so that to
improve soil organic matter. In Tanzania, farmers used contouring ridges to
minimize soil erosion to encourage better roots penetration and enhance
moisture conservation. In Senegal and Bukina Faso, local famers improved their
adaptive capacity by using traditional pruning and fertilizing technique to
double tree densities in semi-arid areas. These help in holding soil together
and reversing desertification.
Planting of trees (a forestation) and agro forestry; Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally
for forestry, land reclamation or landscaping purpose. In silviculture the
activity is known as reforestation or a forestation depending on whether the
area being planted has or has not recently been forested. Agro forestry is a
rational land-use planning system that tries to find some balance in the
raising of food crop and forests. Practices in western part of Nigeria to raise
shade tolerant crops such as cocoyam (Adesina et al,
1998, 1999). Agro forestry techniques can be perfected to cope with new
conditions that are anticipated under a drier condition and a higher population
density, in which they lead to increase in amount of organic matter in the soil
thereby improving agricultural productivity and reducing the pressure exerted
on forest (Nyong et al., 2007).
Holistically, climate
change has brought several impacts on agricultural sector particularly in crops
production by farmers which specifically includes fall in food production
resulting to poverty in most societies and families which depends much on
agriculture. Insipite of having all these adaptive strategies, farmers still
faces a lot of challenges in correctly applying them which includes; lack of
knowledge, expertise and data on climate change issues, lack of specific
climate change institutions to take on climate change work and the need for
better institutional frame works for climate change. Therefore to achieve all
these education to farmers should be provided, outreach programs, training more
extension officers, strengthening human capital, better decision making as well
as establishment of specific institutions for climate change issues.
REFERENCE
v Adesina
F.A. [1998] Developing stable agro forestry system in the tropics; an example
of local agro forestry technique in southern western Nigeria. Discussion paper
in Geography 37, Department of Geography, University of Sal ford, United
Kingdom Pp;27.
v Department
of Food and International Development [DFID], 2004. Adaptation to climate
change; the right information can help the poor to cope; global and local
environmental team, policy decision.
v Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [IPCC]. 2007. Climate change 2007. Climate change
impacts adaptation and vulnerability; summary for policy makers; contribution
of working group 2 to the fourth assessment Report of the IPPC.
v Lema,
M.A. and A.E. Majule. 2009. Impacts of Climate Change Variability And
Adaptation strategies on agriculture in semi-arid areas of Tanzania; The case
study of Manyoni District in Singida Region, Journal of Environmental Sciences
and Technology. 3 [8], Pp 206-218.
v Ngigi,
S.N 2009. Climate change adaptation strategies: Water resource management
options for smallholder farming system in sub-saharan Africa. The MDG Centre
for East and Southern Africa, the Earth Institute at Columbia University, New
York. Pp.189.
v Nyong,
A., F. Adensiana and O. Elasha 2007. The value of indigenous knowledge in
climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitg.
Adapt. Strat. Glob. Change. 12, Pp. 787 -797.
v Ozor,
N And Nnanji, C. E. 2011. The role of
extension in agricultural adaptation to climate change in Enugu State, Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development3 (3): 42-50.
v Urama,
K and N. Ozor. 2011. Agricultural innovations for climate change adaptation for
food security in Western and Central Africa. Agro-science Journal of Tropical
Agriculture, Food, Environment and Extension 10 (1): 1-16
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